Input: are combined. The surveys follow a repeated cross-sectional design and are not panels (i. e. the same administrative units, not the same people, are re-sampled), so responses are aggregated to the groupement level, the lowest level at which the project consistently collect representative data. Table 2 provides a summary of the dates, sizes, and percent of respondents who report being displaced within each survey wave. This aggregated temporal analysis can show, associations between ﬂuctuations in displacement and perceptions of social cohesion over space and time at the groupement level. Question coverage varies across survey waves, but a battery of core questions enables consistent observation of how many individual respondents self-report being displaced at the time of the survey and being involuntarily moved within the past year. Poll Date N % Currently Displaced % Displaced Last Yr % Hosting Displacees # 11 July 2017 5834 4. 35 7. 42 – # 12 September-October 2017 4013 1. 62 2. 62 – # 13 December 2017 4883 3. 50 7. 97 – # 14 March-April 2018 1933 4. 97 8. 85 31. 35 # 15 June-July 2018 5951 3. 70 8. 35 30. 33 # 16 October 2018 1112 6. 47 4. 68 – # 17 December 2018 5918 5. 86 11. 20 – # 19 July-August 2019 5961 5 Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input:
The second source of data we draw on is a short survey on COVID-19 vaccination collected inperson as part of the Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey (ESS 5), a nationally representative household survey that was implemented between April and June 2022 by the Ethiopia Statistical Service with support from the World Bank's LSMS program. This survey contained a similar module as the phone surveys and collected information on the vaccination status of all household members.

The source of administrative data for our study is the Our World in Data (OWID) COVID-19 vaccination dataset (Mathieu et al. 2021) that compiles administrative data on COVID-19 vaccine coverage. Amongst others, the dataset contains information on the number of total doses administered, the share of the country population that has received at least one dose, and the share of the population that is fully vaccinated. [3] It covers the period from December 2020 when the first COVID-19 vaccines achieved approval and is regularly updated as new data becomes available on a per-country basis. The data is compiled from country reports (such as government websites, dashboards, or the social media accounts of national authorities) and in some cases third-party aggregators (where national authorities do not publish data in a machine-readable format) and is regularly audited for inconsistencies and technical errors.

We additionally access a second source of administrative data stemming from the WHO's COVID19 vaccination dashboard (WHO 2020b). The dashboard does not provide longitudinal information for public access but reports the latest available COVID-19 vaccine coverage figures at the time of data access (April 2, 2023, in our case).

Lastly, we use data from the World Bank's Statistical Performance Indicators (SPI) available through the World Bank's Open Data library (World Bank n.d.). The SPI is a composite index between 0 - 100 scoring countries' statistical systems across the five pillars of data use, data services, data products, data sources, and data infrastructure (Dang et al. 2023). To capture the performance of administrative data systems in particular, we also use the SPI's indicator of administrative data capacity (Dimension 4.2) that records the availability of Civil Registration and Vital Statistics (CRVS).

Our World in Data (OWID) COVID-19 vaccination dataset

Statistical Performance Indicators (SPI)

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Input: An open empirical question remains on the relative importance of the three initial conditions (i. e., unemployment, co-ethnic enclaves and attitudes) when examined together. Moreover, we expect the effect of the individual factors to vary in the short, medium and long run over the 20 years examined. In the next section we empirically investigate these issues, and examine whether these assumptions are supported by the empirical evidence. 4 Research Design 4. 1 Data and Descriptive Statistics In our analysis we construct a unique longitudinal dataset which covers the universe of refugees and migrants in Switzerland over 1998-2018. It allows us to follow refugees over the life-cycle for 20 years, and allows us to follow them even after they change residence permit and status. To construct this longitudinal dataset we are combining three administrative datasets. The first dataset, that covers all asylum seekers is AUPER (Automatisierte Personen Registratursystem) which is provided by the State Secretariat for Migration. The data includes information about the residence permit, year of arrival, country of origin, canton of allocation and socio-demographic characteristics. Once an asylum seeker has obtained a residence permit other than permit N (asylum seekers) or F (provisionally admitted foreigners), he or she is registered in ZAR (Zentrales Ausländerregister). This longitudinal dataset is also coming from the SEM. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input:
Based on specification (1), we estimate total 2013 GDP for Kenya at $26.8 billion (2005 USD), close to its actual level of $26.9 billion (WDI, 2014). On county-level, we find that Nairobi had the highest overall GDP in 2013 ($3.4 billion), followed by Kiambu ($3.0 billion), Nakuru ($2.3 billion), Nyeri ($1 billion), and Kilifi ($1 billion). Counties with the lowest GDP are the sparsely populated counties of Isiolo ($56 million), Lamu ($58 million), Samburu ($67 million), Elgeyo Marakwet ($108 million), and Tharaka Nithi ($109 million). Nairobi has the highest contribution to national GDP (13 percent), followed by Kiambu (11 percent),

Based on specification (1), we estimate total 2013 GDP for Rwanda at $4.58 billion (2005 USD), only slightly higher than the national-accounts estimate of $4.57 billion (WDI, 2014). On the district-level, we find that Gasabo district had the highest GDP in 2013 ($925 million), followed by the two other districts of Kigali (Kicukiro at $538 million and Nyarugenge at $371 million). Districts in the secondary urban centers come next: Rubabu ($219 million), Rusizi ($186 million), Huye ($166 million), and

As evident from the title of this paper, we also tried to estimate poverty levels and changes based on nightlights data. The estimated associations were however not robust, and more time and effort would need to be invested in examining this relationship in a more detailed fashion.

Based on national labor survey data (EPAM 2010), it appears that mean income from mining activity for each active worker is higher than the average income for all other activities, especially the agricultural and industrial sectors in the Sikasso region.

WDI, 2014
national labor survey data (EPAM 2010)

nightlights data
national labor survey data

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Input: The LFS reports employment status for individuals aged 15 to 64. The LFS does not cover institutionalized populations, individuals in collective living arrangements (dormitories, military barracks), or the de facto homeless population. These exclusions are standard for household-based labor force surveys and are unlikely to materially affect our estimates, since the excluded populations represent a small fraction of the working-age total and their labor market outcomes are not correlated with the shocks we study.

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Input: 2 International migration — the movement of people across national borders — has important economic, social, and political implications. Despite the recent emergence of a dynamic literature, empirical analysis of migration flows and their impact lags behind the policy debate and the theoretical literature. The main reason is the absence of comprehensive and reliable data on international migration patterns and migrant characteristics at either the aggregate or the household level. The objective of this article is to use data from more than one thousand national censuses and population registers to estimate a complete global origin – destination migration matrix for each decade over 1960 – 2000. These 226 * 226 matrices, comprising every country, major territory, and dependency around the world, are divided into periods corresponding to the last five completed census rounds. The gender dimension of international migration over this period is also presented. The primary source of the raw data is the United Nations Population Division ‘ s Global Migration Database, created through the collaboration of the United Nations Population Division, the United Nations Statistics Division, the World Bank, and the University of Sussex (United Nations [2008]). This unique data repository comprises 3, 500 individual census and population register records1 for more than 230 destination countries and territories over the last five decades. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

national censuses and population registers

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Input: Bank branches in El Fasher have limited capital for small businesses as their headquarters in Khartoum regard the area as too great a risk and IDPs themselves as riskier investments than their host community peers (UN- HABITAT 2009: p. 8). Exposure to unclean cooking fuels and inadequate housing can lead to poor health outcomes, while lack of access to electricity and a bank account further excludes individuals from labor market integration and livelihood opportunities that would empower forcibly displaced persons to overcome their multiple, overlapping deprivations. Clearly, displacement status puts individuals at a greater risk of poverty than their host community neighbors, and we can unpack those risks in greater detail using the MPI. Results can also be broken down to show the percentage contribution of each indicator to multidimensional poverty (see Figure 2). Among refugees in Ethiopia, lack of a bank account is the largest contributor to poverty, while among host communities, the largest contributor is years of schooling. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: Furthermore, in some contexts, registration as an IDP can expire after a prescribed timeframe without regard to whether the person achieved a durable solution (e. g. after five years in Russia). The accuracy of IDP registers is greatly impacted by political considerations, particularly a government ’ s willingness to acknowledge internal displacement and to enable the humanitarian community to respond. Some countries may be reluctant to acknowledge the presence of IDPs, or may be inclined to understate numbers to demonstrate progress in military operations or limit assistance provided to IDPs. For example, in Kenya, registration of individuals displaced by the 2007 and 2008 post-election violence excluded ‘ integrated ’ IDPs, i. e. those who had sought refuge with host communities or rented accommodation in urban areas, as assistance was limited to registered IDPs. Alternatively, aggregate numbers of IDPs in particular countries may be inflated to suggest a deterioration of the situation or to maximize humanitarian assistance. Therefore, access to IDP areas and the willingness of IDPs to be counted may be largely dependent on government policies. These political considerations can lead to disagreements on the data, undermine cooperation and in some cases even lead to reduced humanitarian funding. Profiling of IDP situations Profiling of IDP situations is a collaborative process aimed at generating reliable data that can be broadly agreed upon. As a collaborative process, it can be a crucial tool for generating agreement on persistent questions such as who is recognized as internally displaced within a given context, what are the most prevalent vulnerabilities caused by displacement, and how do IDPs fare compared to host populations. In sought refuge with host communities or rented accommodation in urban areas, as assistance was limited to registered IDPs. 68 However, in many conflict-affected countries, governments lack the basic capacity to maintain Civil Registration and Vital Statistics (CRVS) systems including the registration of births and deaths in non-displacement situations, let alone the registration of IDPs displaced due to natural disasters or conflict. 69 IOM has introduced biometric registration systems in South Sudan, Sudan, DRC and Nigeria to circumvent these problems.

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Input: According to the 2012 Institutional Profiles report, the quality of public services and its territorial coverage, which was weak to being with, have significantly deteriorated since 2006. 1 A combination of rising poverty, rising insecurity, and deteriorating public services have further strained inter-communal relations and contributed to deteriorations in social cohesion. Many Lebanese youth do not trust their state and become disillusioned as they are not able to affect their own life or contribute productively to society at large. 2 Political and civic engagement is reported to be low (Status of Women in the Middle East and North Africa Survey Project, 2010). 3 In an already fragile context with a highly complex political, religious and social landscape consisting of 18 religious sects, numerous political parties, and large numbers of refugees, many Lebanese 1 On the quality of public services indicator, Lebanon ’ s score declined from 2. 5 in 2006 to 0. 8 in 2012 on a 4-point scale. On the territorial coverage indicator, its score went down from 2. 7 in 2006 to 1. 5 in 2012. 2In a Gallup World Poll, Lebanese reported low confidence in (a) their national government (37 percent) and the judiciary, (b) the honesty of elections (15 percent), and (c) the honesty of government (4 percent) (World Bank, 2016). 3 According to the SWMENA survey, only 18 percent of Lebanese women are members of an organization, compared to 34 percent of men. Men are more likely to be members of a political organization than women (21 percent of men vs. 7 percent of women), whereas women are more likely to be active in religious groups and charity organizations than men. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

Middle East and North Africa Survey Project

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Input: Typically, registers have evolved over time (from parish records, for example). They were never developed specifically to record international migration information, and they vary considerably across countries. For example, the laws under which individuals are classified as migrants and the conditions under which they are inscribed or deregistered differ greatly (Bilsborrow and others 1997). The Raw Data The Global Migration Database is a vast collection of destination country data sources detailing migrant stocks from numerous origin countries and regions (United Nations [2008]). Compiling and maintaining the underlying primary sources require herculean efforts to scour the key census collections of the world and enter the data manually. In total, the database comprises records from some 3, 500 separate censuses from more than 230 migrant destination countries and territories, by sex and age.

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Input: In order to address these potential sample biases, the CAVR supplemented its documentation with reports produced by Amnesty International and Fokupers (a local NGO). The information contained in these reports was then included into the HRVD database. 9 Note that we do not analyse school completion in 2001 because most children that were of school age in 1999 were still in school in 2001. 10 The questions we used are ― Was [NAME] displaced outside E. Timor in 1999? ‖, and ― Was the [BUILDING] damaged in the violence of 1999? ‖. 14 % of the whole sample surveyed in 2001 report having been displaced, while 26 % report that their house was destroyed. Within our sample of school age children, these figures are 16 % and 25 %, respectively. We have made sure that buildings that are reported to having been destroyed were used for living purposes only. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: migration, and reason for movement including asylum / refugee protection (or conflict-induced internal migration) (UNHCR 2016), or a specific question to identify IDPs or refugees. However, not all censuses cover refugees and asylum-seekers (if foreigners are considered outside the scope of the census or because they are considered a special category), 71 nor is it common practice for national censuses to include questions related to forced displacement. 72 Nevertheless, there are several examples of national censuses that have included relevant questions on forced displacement. 73, 74 In the case of protracted internal displacement situations, IDPs are likely to be included in national censuses; however, census instruments may be subject to manipulation for political purposes. There are several drawbacks of population censuses including their cost, the significant training required for enumerators to ensure consistent answers to questions on forced displacement, impediments to field operations and data processing (such as weather conditions and technical problems), the relative infrequency with which they are carried out, and the long processing time before data and statistics become available, which have consequences for the timeliness of data. Moreover, often censuses are not conducted in contested territory or conflict zones where many displaced persons reside, and this limits the completeness of the data. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input:
They indicate that a 10% increase in Germany's export share is associated with a 8% increase in German ownership (0.04 percentage points over the average ownership of 0.5%). We do not find evidence of border regions receiving more FDI from Germany (Figure A.8 of the Appendix). As a falsification experiment, we employ the same specification on similar data for Romanian firms, also from the Orbis database. Since Romania acceded the EU in 2007, we would not expect to observe a significant effect in this case.

It is worth noting that the sharp increase in foreign acquisitions was not likely driven by the lift of restrictions on FDI. OECD data on FDI restrictiveness for Poland show that screening and legal restrictions on FDI in manufacturing sectors had already been greatly removed by the time of accession.

Table 2 presents summary statistics from the pooled 2013 and 2018 Demographic Health Surveys for our child health outcomes, parental and household characteristics in the oil producing states

Our child health data come from the 2013 and 2018 Nigerian Demographic Health Survey (DHS). These nationally representative cross-sectional surveys have demographic and health details for women aged (15-49) and for children aged (0-5).

of flare volumes. These come from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on-board the

Orbis database
Nigerian Demographic Health Survey

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Input:
assemble annual observations as follows for each grid square: the first 40 from the CRU

scores). We do this for both future periods, as well as for the historical CRU data (here

of rainfall and temperature for the past (from the benchmark CRU series that we have

table presents average R [2] scores for the bivariate relationships between the CRU

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Input:
**7.3 Environmental and Social Commitment Plan (ESCP)**

The ESCP sets out legally binding commitments for the borrower related to environmental and social management, including: (i) operationalization of the grievance redress mechanism within 60 days of project effectiveness; (ii) disclosure of the ESMF and LMP on the borrower's website within 30 days of Board approval; (iii) submission of semi-annual E&S progress reports to the Bank; and (iv) maintenance of the MHPSS referral pathway documentation and making it available to Bank staff upon request during supervision missions.

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Input: of dependability (Heller and Kessler, 2022). In a recent study, Karpowitz et al. (2023) show how these soft skills interact with discriminatory practices. They find that assigning leadership roles to women in a classroom setting reduces gender discrimination. Similarly, Kaas and Manger (2012) use a correspondence study to show that presenting soft information, such as reference letters with information on conscientiousness and agreeableness, seems to mitigate discrimination. Second, unlike most correspondence studies, we exploit data on firm characteristics and decisions at multiple stages of the hiring process to conduct a rich heterogeneity analysis. Most studies are only able to observe if the candidate receives an interview offer. Hangartner et al. (2021) is an interesting exception, which tracks online employers ’ actions and collects information that allows them to study hiring decisions. We instead observe five stages in the hiring process: 1) if employers reject an application, 2) if they visit an applicant ’ s profile, 3) the number of visits to each profile, 4) if employers contact the candidate, and 5) if they offer an interview. These five outcomes provide a rich preview into the hiring decision. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input:
In order to understand the role of vulnerability, we turn to international data. The international regressions measure the relationship between damage and fatalities and population and income (using international data EMDAT 2009).

<!-- PAGE 17 -->
to follow projections made by demographers (United Nations 2004). GDP is assumed to

Dartmouth Flood Observatory's (DFO) Global Archive of Large Flood Events, which is

housed at the University of Colorado (floodobservatory.colorado.edu). The DFO is funded

Emergency Events Database (Cavallo and Noy 2010), which is affiliated with the World

maps from the Gridded Population of the World v3 (CIESIN-CIAT 2005) to obtain

Dartmouth Flood Observatory's (DFO) Global Archive of Large Flood Events

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Input: discussed earlier, the expenditure of in-camp refugees is almost half that of hosts despite sizeable food aid and significant investments made by the WFP and UNHCR in cash transfers (in selected camps). The significantly lower expenditures (food and non-food) among refugees compared to the host population led to higher poverty rates. The team cross-checked the food aid received by in-camp refugees based on administrative data from the UNHCR and WFP with food consumption data from SESRE. The analysis looks at both separately for information provided by UNHCR and WFP. While WFP is not responsible for distributing non-food items such as mattresses, cooking, feeding utensils, etc., UNHCR provides non-food items; maybe mattresses were distributed in Alemwach since it is a relatively new camp. WFP’s food and cash assistance targets all individuals in refugee households. The information received from UNHCR on food aid provided to refugees in each camp includes quantities per food item per month and cash transfers per person per month for each camp and period. The food items include cereal, wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, CSB/famex (CSB+), pulse, biscuit, date biscuit, dates, oil, vegetable oil, salt, and cash (Table E.4). We have computed the per person per month in-kind aid

administrative data from the UNHCR
food consumption data from SESRE

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Input: Afrobarometer finds that the vast majority of Malians want their country to remain a single and unified nation and that the attempt by armed groups to create a breakaway state in Mali ’ s northern territories is decisively rejected. See Afrobarometer Policy Paper 10 (Dec 2013). This difference with the Afrobarometer survey can be explained by the fact that the latter survey only focused on Malians inside the country and did not take the views of refugees into account. 5 93 2 6 86 75 20 2 3 94 Independence of the North Autonomy of the North Establish full government control over the North Figure 19: How do you envision the future of Mali? IDPs Refugees Niger Refguees Mauritania Returnees

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Input: The observations of positive events contain more information than the non-event observations We therefore sample asymmetrically: We sample all of the transition events and 1. 0 % of the non-transition events. 3. 4 Disaggregated Independent Variables Local level data on land, population, and elevation is available in the geospatial format of raster files with a resolution of 1km. Using Geographic Information systems (GIS), attributes from raster and point data are associated with the grid square in which they lie. In this way, spatial data is georeferenced to a location that is defined by the grid cell. This process results in a data structure in which each row has within it combined information on a square defined by the grid, the national level information in which is it located, and () () () ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜ ⎝ ⎛ ∑ ∑ ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜ ⎝ ⎛ ∑ = = ∉ = t X t X t d d j j p j R i d j j p j w w t β β 1 1 exp exp at out breaks war a | square a in war Pr

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Input:
### 7.2 Monitoring and Evaluation Framework

The M&E framework distinguishes between process indicators, tracked through the MIS on a monthly basis, and outcome indicators, measured through periodic surveys. Process indicators cover outputs such as number of beneficiaries registered, cash transfers disbursed, and community infrastructure works completed. Outcome indicators are measured at baseline, midterm, and endline using a structured household survey instrument administered to a representative sample drawn from the beneficiary and comparison populations.

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Input: The resulting migration matrices should be viewed as work in progress, but they are an important step in an ongoing global effort to improve migration data. The matrices can be readily updated as additional or superior information surfaces, and they can easily be extended to include future census rounds. Bilateral datasets of international migration are rare. Attempts to create them have focused almost exclusively on industrialized countries as destinations because these countries have more accurate and more frequently produced data. Harrison and others (2003) calculate bilateral remittances for the countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) together with the 27 largest nonmembers. These estimates are based on international bilateral migrant stock data that the authors also provide, although many of the data are derived from the Trends in International Migration (OECD 2002). This report, published annually since 1973, was arguably the most comprehensive guide to international migration for many years and has been the basis for many studies (see, for example, Mayda 2007). More recently, the OECD has developed a database that provides a comprehensive overview of migration to OECD countries in 2000 (OECD 2008). These data are disaggregated by a number of covariates including age, gender, educational attainment, and place of birth. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

international bilateral migrant stock data

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Input: street vending (48 % of those with at least 1 IGA), food processing for sale, including baking, cooking, and drying (16 %), and home production of crops, livestock, and fish (11 %). It is important to note that the EPAG program was not targeted toward the most vulnerable segments of Liberian society, but rather toward young women with enough education to be able to benefit from a training program of this nature. Based on comparisons from the 2007 CWIQ (Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire) survey, the average EPAG participant is more educated, more literate, more likely to be engaged in an income-generating activity, and owns more assets than the average Liberian women of the same age group: mobile phone ownership was high (63 %), as was the proportion reporting that they had some money of their own (79 %). Even compared to other similar residents of Monrovia, the EPAG participants are better educated and have higher income. A strong sense of female empowerment at baseline emerges from the sections of the survey instrument having to do with self-confidence and agency.

Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire
CWIQ

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Input: A number of different road indicators are available and we choose road line type to use in the analysis. Road type is defined by the following: The reference category (0) points out squares with dual lane / divided highways, other primary roads, or road connectors within urban areas (types 1 or 8 in the ESRI dataset). The second category include secondary roads (type 2), and the third combines squares with informal or tertiary roads (tracks, trails or footpaths) or no road registered at all (types 3 and 0, respectively, in the ESRI dataset). Figure 4 overlays the types of roads in the original dataset before our recategorization. The shaded area represents the portion of Africa for which we code Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: 10 statuses in February 2020, right before the pandemic. We deemed the SYPJ data to be more suited to our question since it allows to look at the trend of employment outcomes before the pandemic as well as right after the shock in the summer of 2020 and therefore allows investigating the effect of the pandemic on the two populations. The CMM data would be better suited to capture the recovery from the pandemic (Krafft et al., Forthcoming). The overlapping portion of the CMM data with the SYPJ data (February 2020 to February 2021) did not allow for a comparable analysis to the one we did in this paper. The overlap is not perfect. CMM data was collected a few months after the bulk of the SYPJ data only allowing for a comparison between the first half of 2021 (CMM) to the second half of 2020 rates (SYPJ). This is not a reasonable comparison especially in a period with rapidly changing events like the pandemic time. In addition, the time intervals are different as CMM data allows for examining annual change (February 2020 to February 2021) as opposed to semi-annual, and that is only one period which does not allow to compare the trend. In our analysis we focus on young males aged 15 and above who ever worked. Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input:
_returns to education are heterogeneous across countries. The second set of Mincerian returns are those estimated by Montenegro and Patrinos (2014)._
_Source: The data has been collected from PWT 9.0 (Feenstra, Inklaar and Timmer 2015)._

natural capital: (i) it represents only the contribution of the physical capital stock from PWT 9.0 in the conventional

<!-- PAGE 12 -->
decomposition, and (ii) it shows the contribution of the physical capital stock (from PWT 9.0) and natural capital (Lange

et al. 2018) in the natural resource decomposition. The average annual rate of growth in output per worker for the

respectively- are then computed using the estimated relative income shares (which vary across groups) and the PWT   9.0 labor share (which varies across countries and over time).

Since  is calculated from the share of labor force in PWT 9.0 and 𝛼�1 �𝛾� is proxied by the ratio of natural resource

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Input: 3. Secondary outcomes among refugees: These include a broader set of variables that were grouped into 14 broad families in the PAP including: (1) dwelling characteristics and house- hold structure, (2) consumption and expenditure, (3) ﬁnancial participation, (4) earnings, labor, and occupational choice, (5) migration, (6) physical, mental health, and sleep, (7) marriage and fertility, (8) child outcomes, (9) social capital, (10) political attitudes, (11) time use, (12) education and cognition, (13) behavioral games and preferences, and ﬁnally, (14) speciﬁc COVID-19 related outcomes. The three primary outcomes noted above are a subset of these measures. Certain outcomes were collected in each of the three survey rounds, for instance, the food security measures (the number of meals eaten and the frequency of go- ing to bed hungry). Respondents also reported information on child school attendance, and completion of learning activities when schools were closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: In contrast, the self-assessed entrepreneurial score is based on questions asking how well the respondent believes she could perform a series of six tasks related to starting or running a business, and can be considered a task-oriented measure of self-efficacy. The aggregate measure of entrepreneurial ability increased by roughly nine percentage points among EPAG beneficiaries relative to those in the control group, equivalent to a quarter of a standard deviation. Enhancing participants ’ self-confidence to perform these tasks was one of the main immediate objectives of the BDS training program. Table 6B summarizes the results on a series of questions on attitudes and self-confidence that were added during the midline survey only (hence no panel analysis is possible). EPAG graduates report a more positive attitude: they feel more in control and more comfortable, and they have greater confidence in their own business abilities as well as in their personal and social lives. They are also more confident than the control group in their personal relationships with spouses and partners, consistent with the findings in Table 6A. Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: Protection monitoring for the northern corridor documented 487 households between January and March. Findings indicate that 41 percent of surveyed households face barriers to accessing documentation services, and 28 percent report incidents of property or land disputes with host community members. Protection monitoring results were shared with the district authorities and the national protection cluster secretariat, which incorporated the findings into its quarterly situation report and used them to support an advocacy letter to the Ministry of Interior requesting streamlined access to civil registration services.

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Input: to the Venezuelan migratory crisis, whereas the VenRepPS survey was conducted during the pandemic in 2020. These temporal inconsistencies result in varying sample composi- tions across surveys, diverging from the landscape we observe in 2022. Notably, forced migrants in the VenReps Kids survey migrated during the crisis but have since remained in the country for several years, potentially leading to disparities in household integration outcomes. IV GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS IV. A Key characteristics of adults Table 2 provides descriptive statistics for the adults in our study, encompassing the pri- mary caregiver, mother and father (if residing with the child), and the individual finan- cially responsible for the child (should they be different from the aforementioned per- sons). Typically, the roles of primary caregiver and financial provider are fulfilled by either the mother or the father. The table is organized into three panels for clarity: Panel A details key individual characteristics, Panel B outlines adults ’ access to services, and Panel C focuses on labor market characteristics. Within the table, columns (1) and (2) present average values for adults from Colombia and Venezuela, respectively, while the final column displays the results of mean difference tests between these two groups, with standard errors noted in brackets.

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Input:
using purchasing power parity rates. It comes from the World Development Indicators

The governance indicators come from the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG)

Data on the Gini coefficient were drawn from a more complete World Bank source

100 km of ice-free coast) come from Gallup et al. (1999). Data on total forest area (km [2] ),

precipitation come from WDI (2010). Latitude (in absolute value), mean elevation (meters

World Development Indicators
International Country Risk Guide

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Input: After a short respite in November, Israel imposed a third lockdown from December to February the next year. Gradual easing continued throughout March. During this lockdown, vaccination was rolled out, including to commuters with valid permits. Given this context, we expect the main shock to occur in 2020Q2 in the West Bank, with negative effects of smaller magnitudes to persist over the next quarters. In Gaza, we expect another major shock in 2020Q3 that carries over to Q4. We expect the commuters ’ outcomes to instead track events in Israel and occupied territories more closely, with a major shock in 2020Q2, recovery in Q3, and another dip in Q4. 3 Data 3. 1 Data sources and definitions We employ data from the Labor Force Surveys (LFS) of the West Bank and Gaza, collected by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics and prepared by the Economic Research Forum. The surveys are conducted on a quarterly basis, covering periods from 2000 onwards. The LFS is meant to represent all households whose ordinary residence is in the West Bank and Gaza, though their place of work need not be. The LFS is representative at the region level (respectively of the West Bank and Gaza), as well as at the level of locality types (urban, rural, and refugee camps) (Palestine- Labor Force Survey, LFS, 2021). Importantly for the purpose of our analysis, the data have a panel dimension, en- abling the study of labor market transitions. The sample rotation scheme is described 9 Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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Input: UNICEF (2017) reports that for boys, child labor, school violence, and the high costs of schooling (for transportation and stationery supplies) are the main barriers to their enrollment. For girls, barriers include the distance to the nearest school, the high cost of transportation, the need to help with household chores, health problems, and families refusing to educate their daughters. According to the JD ‐ HV database, the most common reasons parents gave for their children not attending school were financial constraints (35 percent), lack of capacity in schools (29 percent), or that children were required to work to support their family (14 percent). By 2016, the enrolment rate of Syrian refugee school ‐ age children in Jordan was 83 percent, 54 percent in formal education, and 29 percent in nonformal education (World Bank 2017b). 10 Refugee Employment It has been hard for refugees to find work in Jordan. The slowdown in growth in Jordan pre ‐ dates the arrival of Syrian refugees and the economy has been increasingly unable to absorb new labor market entrants. Between 2010 and 2016, labor force inactivity increased, employment decreased, and unemployment increased in Jordan (Malaeb and Wahba, 2018). Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input:
**Box 3: The Role of GIS in Project Site Selection**

During project preparation, GIS was used to overlay three spatial datasets: (i) displacement hotspot maps produced by UNHCR's Field Information and Coordination Support section; (ii) a poverty concentration index derived from the national household budget survey; and (iii) road network accessibility scores from the Ministry of Transport's infrastructure database. The GIS analysis identified 47 communities meeting the dual threshold of high displacement concentration and limited infrastructure access. These communities form the initial targeting list for Component 1 activities.

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Input: Despite notable disparities in the characteristics of our sample compared to the VenRePS and RAMV samples, understanding the interaction of these attributes within a frame- work of self-selection among migrants into Medellin is challenging. Moreover, it is cru- cial to note two primary distinctions between our survey and the VenRePS and RAMV surveys. Firstly, the inherent differences in the sampling frames of each survey stem from their distinct measurement objectives. Second, both surveys were conducted at different times compared to our survey. The RAMV survey was undertaken in 2018 in response 10See Ib ´ a ˜ nez et al. (2022) for specific survey and sampling details. 11Refer to Ib ´ a ˜ nez et al. (2022) for further details. 12Since the VenRePS and RAMV surveys lack information regarding children and adolescents within households, our analysis concentrates only on the household and household head characteristics that are available in all three surveys. 20 Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: These may include skills on how to write a CV, prepare for job interviews, business and entrepreneurial skills to start a business, etc. In this regard, the mechanism for improving social cohesion values appears to have come from inter-community volunteering activities, rather than improvements in soft skills. (c) IMPACTS ON LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES While the NVSP was designed primarily to improve social cohesion values among participating Lebanese youth, it was also hoped that engaging them in volunteering activities, coupled with soft skills training, would enhance their employability and thus increase their chances of employment. At baseline, half of the selected and non-selected volunteers were active and searching for a job. Among them, 49 percent reported being unemployed, 31 percent wage employed, 13 percent employed in unpaid jobs, and 7 percent self-employed (see table 1). Those active volunteers were older in age than the rest of volunteers who reported being inactive in the study ’ s sample (with an average age of 21 and closer to labor market insertion). One year later, it appears that many of 19 Our interpretation that offered soft skills are likely too basic for this pool of volunteers is provided given the scale that we used in the questionnaire to test their knowledge on soft skills. We cannot rule out the possibility that had we used a different scale, we might have found an impact, either negative or positive. Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

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Input:
1 We use the generic term HCES to refer to a range of household survey efforts to capture total household
consumption expenditures. This can include surveys described as household budget surveys, living standards
surveys, or others.

We explore a unique survey experiment which randomly assigned seven different HCES methods to

of Sub-Saharan environments where, according to the FAO, the proportion of hungry people is highest

survey experiment, described below, ensure that any differences in derived hunger numbers are solely

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Input: Concerns raised during consultations about the GBV risk associated with construction-phase migrant labor were addressed through a site-specific GBV annex appended to each contractor's ESMP. The annex requires contractors to conduct community sensitization sessions on the project's SEAH prohibitions before works mobilization, to post information on the GBV Action Plan reporting hotline at all worksites, and to participate in quarterly coordination meetings with the local SGBV response service providers.

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Input: 8 agreements that did not fully satisfied either party (Ndayirukiye and Takeuchi 2014). This tension related to land, and who has a claim to the land, can lead to social tensions in communities with higher levels of return. Figure 3 – Refugees in Tanzania in 2005 by province of origin in Burundi Note: The number in brackets is the number of refugees in Tanzania in 2005 which was originally from the given province in Burundi. This information comes from (UNHCR 2021b). The number in parenthesis is that number as a percentage share of the population of the provinces as estimated in 1990 Burundi Census. An important question for our hypotheses is the degree to which there is evidence of migration-related societal divisions in the country. There is no direct quantitative evidence on identity issues (i. e. returnees versus stayees), but we have data on attitudes towards emigration, remittances and return that can provide insights on these identities and even be a proxy for migration-related identity in some cases. Overall, attitudes towards emigration and return are mixed and show that there is scope for the existence of migration-related divisions. In Table 1 we report the share of respondents who agreed with different statements regarding emigration, remittances and return. Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

data on attitudes towards emigration, remittances and return

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Input: Disaggregated data on IDPs who are not protected or assisted by UNHCR are collected by other agencies, including IOM, but data are not comprehensive and therefore not published in IDMC ’ s global reports. 93 The difficulties of collecting disaggregated data on locations of IDPs are compounded by the fluidity of IDP movements — IDPs might suffer multiple displacements or they might resort to changing locations as a coping strategy (e. g. moving between their homes and place of displacement or testing different locations before deciding where to stay) (Brookings 2011). In recent years, efforts have been made to improve data collection for IDPs living outside of camps by employing a range of techniques including: (a) profiling; (b) household surveys; (c) collecting information on IDPs who come to camps to visit family members or collect relief items; and (d) community outreach programs (Brookings 2013). Usage context: background mention, supporting mention, primary mention.

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Input: 15 resulting in government forces recapturing rebel held territory, establishment of a rebel base or headquarters, rebel activity that is not battle related (e. g. presence or the killing of civilians), and territorial transfers. The dataset consists of 4, 145 battle events for the 1960 – 2004 period. In the present analysis, we use 2, 530 of these. The remaining events were dropped as they either were in countries not included in the analysis, or because information was missing for one of the key variables. Each conflict event is associated with geographic coordinates and a date of occurrence. This information allows for spatial and temporal modeling of conflict events. The dataset used in this article covers 14 countries in Central Africa. 6 of them had a conflict in the 1960 – 2004 period according to the Uppsala / PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset (Gleditsch et al., 2002): Angola, Burundi, Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Rwanda, and Uganda. Usage context: supporting mention, primary mention, background mention.

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Input:
**Component 4: Project Management, Monitoring, and Evaluation (US$3.8 million)**

This component will finance the operating costs of the Coordination Unit and support the rollout of the Management Information System (MIS) across all twelve participating district offices. The MIS will track beneficiary registration, service delivery milestones, and grievance redress outcomes, providing real-time dashboards for national coordinators. Quarterly progress reports generated from the MIS will form the basis of implementation support missions. The component also covers the cost of the endline evaluation, contracted to an independent firm, and capacity-building workshops for district-level M&E officers.

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Input:
FAO (2012) being the latest. More recently, the FAO indicator is used to track progress toward the first

country. [2] Combining this with population data allows the FAO to estimate the total kilo calories available

number of HCES. [3] For most countries the CV was kept constant across years and only the mean was

revised. [4] Finally, the FAO estimates the required energy of a population by determining age-sex specific

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Input: Flood maps generated by the disaster risk reduction directorate were integrated into the project's site assessment tool to automate flood-risk flagging for proposed subproject locations. When a proposed site's coordinates fall within the 50-year inundation boundary on the flood maps, the tool generates an automatic alert requiring sign-off from the PIU's environmental specialist before the subproject can proceed to the design phase. Since rollout of the tool in June, 17 alerts have been generated, of which 12 were resolved through minor site adjustments and 5 required full site relocation.

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Input: 9 3. 1 Data Sources We use three different types of data to verify our estimates and determine how sensitive they are to changes in definition and the year of the survey. Two sources are nationally representative, but date from 2001 or before, the third is data from a census of households carried out by the authors in 2003 as part of a project on educational choice. The first source is the “ long ” form of the population census in 1998, which is a large sample-based survey with information on enrollment. This survey is representative at the level of the district and region (rural or urban) and provides comprehensive coverage of the entire country. 7 We use this data to examine enrollment patterns across districts. The second type of data, based on household surveys, are different rounds of the Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS) carried out in 1991, 1998 and 2001. While the data is not as extensive as the census, it contains detailed household information on schooling and income, and has been used extensively by researchers both in Pakistan and the United States. Finally, we use the census of schooling choice among households that our research team conducted in August 2003 (referred to as the project on “ Learning and Educational Achievement in Punjab Schools ”, or LEAPS).

census of schooling choice among households

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Input: 10 Pregnancy Care A woman who gave birth in the last 2 years did not visit a clinic while pregnant or have a trained assistant during delivery 1 / 16 Physical Safety Any member feels unsafe at home or walking alone14 1 / 16 Early Marriage A member was married before age 19 1 / 16 Living Standards Garbage Disposal Main method of solid waste disposal is dumping, burying in own compound, burning, or other 1 / 24 Drinking Water Main source of drinking water is unsafe, or it takes more than 20 minutes (round-trip) to get water15 1 / 24 Electricity It does not have electricity 1 / 24 Cooking Fuel Main energy source for cooking is solid fuels 1 / 24 Housing It is an unimproved housing type 1 / 24 Sanitation Main toilet facility is unimproved, or shared with other households16 1 / 24 Financial Security Unemployment Any member 15 or older is unemployed and looking for work17 1 / 12 Legal Identification No member has a form of legal identification 1 / 12 Bank Account No member has a bank or mobile money account 1 / 12 The MPI presented here uses equal nested weights with all four dimensions considered to be equally important, and all indicators within a dimension receiving an equal share of the total weight.

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Input:
While we know approximately the number of persons affected by flooding worldwide
(106 million, on average, between 2000 and 2005 according to the _International_
_Disaster Database_ ), and by hurricanes (38 million), the total number of people
threatened by an eventual increase of this kind of disaster is, however, very difficult to
estimate (EM-DAT). No climate model is able to predict with accuracy whether or not
the affected zones will be densely populated and whether the damage will have tragic
consequences.

Apart from this difficulty of forecasting, the studies carried out after such events tend
to relativize their effects in terms of migration in general, and long-term migration in
particular. Living mainly in poor countries, the victims have little mobility (Lonergan

5

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Input: Proclamation of Ethiopia provided a long list of areas52 exclusively reserved for Ethiopian nationals, including small businesses that would have been of interest to refugees (FDRE, 2020). Hence, it allows many business activities to go beyond the reach of refugees. A draft MoU signed between RRS and MoLS/MoTRI/ MoR proposed exceptional treatment of refugees engaged in business due to their vulnerability. According to the MoU, refugees can own a business in agriculture, manufacturing, services, small and medium enterprises, handicrafts, and trade sectors through establishing private limited companies or cooperative societies. Hence, refugees can obtain a business license as a private business or association by providing proof of refugee ID, support letter from RRS on the type of business, source of capital, utilization of profits, qualification certification (depending on the sector), and tax identification number. A business license renewal requires a valid refugee ID, tax clearance, and audit report for a limited liability company. 52 Restaurants, tearooms, coffee shops, bars, nightclubs, catering services, producing bakery products and pastries, barbershop and beauty salon services, smithery, tailoring, sawmilling, timber manufacturing, brick and block manufacturing, quarrying, laundry services, translation secretarial services, security services, brokerage services, and attorney and legal consultancy. Annexes 87 Following the

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Input:
|Strategic
priorities
Modalities|Protection of civilians|Displacement|Access to services|
|---|---|---|---|
|
**Advocacy**| Monitoring and reporting
(civilians casualties, MRM)
 Engagement with parties
to the conflict
 Support to the NUG to
publish and implement its
National Policy on Civilian
Casualty Prevention and
Mitigation (Cf. PoC key
advocacy areas)| Support to DiREC
 Information products
 Briefing notes to
HC/HCT, GPC, Donors
 Adherence to refugee
law especially with
regard to refoulement| Access to civil
documentation and
policies for the affected
population to be able to
access justice, education,
finance and inheritance
rights in the interim
 Linkage with Citizen
Charter CDCs|
|
**Advocacy**|Protection monitoring|Protection monitoring|Protection monitoring|
|
**Advocacy**|HCT Protection strategy

|HCT Protection strategy

|HCT Protection strategy

|
|
**Access**| Conflict and stakeholder
analysis| Protection integration
in Health, FS,
Shelter/NFI,WASH,
cash based
programming| Communication and
information strategy|
|
**Access**|HAG - Negotiated access strategies of international actors|HAG - Negotiated access strategies of international actors|HAG - Negotiated access strategies of international actors|
|
**Access**|Partnership and capacity building of local actors|Partnership and capacity building of local actors|Partnership and capacity building of local actors|
|
**Access**|Establishment of Community Network|Establishment of Community Network|Establishment of Community Network|
|
**Access**|Mobile outreach and remote monitoring

|Mobile outreach and remote monitoring

|Mobile outreach and remote monitoring

|
|
**Protection **| Mine action| Protection assessment
and analysis
 Alert system
 Gender analysis
 Preparedness| PSN Network
(Identification and
referral)
 linkage with AIHRC to
address areas of human
trafficking, lack of access
to essential services and
justice through a human
rights lens|
|
**Protection **|Community Based
Measures
|Protection Mainstreaming in Health, FS, Shelter/NFI,
WASH, cash based programming

|Protection Mainstreaming in Health, FS, Shelter/NFI,
WASH, cash based programming

|
|
**Protection **| UNAMA PoC
 Local advocacy| Assistance and
Mediation to issues
related to HLP| Child Protection (support
to CPANs, CFS, packet of
services)
  GBV capacity
(Identification and
referral),legal assistance
 Access to tazkera|
|
**Protection **|Call center|Call center|Call center|

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Input: expect the prices of many manufactures to do as well. The 1995 / 96 NLSS collected information on the quantity and price paid for rice by individual households. From this we compute a unit price per Kg. The log of the district median is used as our price index proxy. To construct an index of housing costs, we take advantage of a section of the 1995 / 96 NLSS survey focusing on housing. The survey collected information on hypothetical and actual house rental values of each household together with house characteristics such as square footage, number and type of rooms, quality of materials, and the availability of various utilities. We use these data to construct an hedonistic index of housing costs for each district. Let rk s be the house rental price paid (or estimated) by household h in district s and let xh s denote a vector of house characteristics. We estimate a regression of the form: log rk s = as + bxh s + ek s to obtain estimates of eas, the housing cost premium in each district s. Regression results are shown in Table A1 in appendix. Many house characteristics are signiﬁcant with the expected sign, e. g., larger, better built houses with better in-house amenities are worth more. District price diﬀerentials are large and jointly signiﬁcant.

A dataset, survey, database, index, census, registry, or information system with a specific proper name that can be cited, queried, or downloaded as a data source

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Input: On average, the tax-to-GDP ratio in Sub-Saharan Africa is around 21 percent, compared with the OECD average of about 32 percent. In Tanzania and Uganda, the total tax share drops to about 10 percent. Historical data suggests that the tax share of many European countries did not reach 15 percent of GDP until World War II when incomes were substantially higher than they are in many African countries (Fjeldstad and Rakner, 2003, 3). The types and amount of taxes citizens pay varies both within and be- tween countries. We do know there are taxes on agricultural crops, but the rates and processes of collection vary within countries (Kasara, 2007). User fees from electricity, water, sanitation, and other services comprise the major- ity of local revenue in South Africa (Hoﬀman, 2007). In Tanzania, Fjeldstad and Semboja (2001) count ten major categories of taxes, eighteen major categories of licenses, forty groups of charges and fees, and seventeen items listed as other revenue sources. In some countries including Kenya, Malawi, 11 Usage context: primary mention, supporting mention, background mention.

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Input: displaced children and adolescents residing in host communities, rather than in refugee camps. Particularly, VenRePs-Kids collects data on 2, 556 households including 1, 338 Colombian and 918 Venezuelan households, respectively. The study collects rich and comprehensive data on children ’ s and adolescent ’ s development including anthropometric measures, vo- cabulary ability tests, and socio-emotional and mental health assessments. It also collects data on risk behaviors, time use, social integration measures, prosocial behaviors, and parents and caregivers sociodemographics, among other dimensions. 2 The study includes Colombian children and adolescents as the comparison group to high- light the developmental differences of Venezuelan forcibly displaced children. This choice stems from the fact that comparing Venezuelan children in Colombia with their counter- parts remaining in Venezuela is impractical due to the latter ’ s exposure to a severe eco- nomic and humanitarian crisis, marked by limited access to services and food. This envi- ronment severely hampers their potential for normal human development. Additionally, many Venezuelan children and adolescents have spent more of their lives in Colombia than in Venezuela. Therefore, Colombian children and adolescents serve as the most ap- propriate benchmark for assessing the developmental gaps of their Venezuelan peers. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: intention to migrate abroad (1) (2) Camp-Based Refugees OCP Refugees Male 0.022 -0.001 (0.019) (0.008) Age Under 30 - - Age 30-44 -0.000 -0.007 (0.020) (0.008) Age 45-64 -0.082*** -0.088** (0.027) (0.036) Education: Primary incomplete - - Education: Completed primary -0.008 0.004 (0.036) (0.009) Education: Completed secondary 0.016 0.006 (0.064) (0.009) Education: Completed post-secondary -0.016 -0.010 (0.067) (0.034) Years in Ethiopia -0.000 -0.000 (0.004) (0.001) Region Fixed Effects Yes No N 3,069 830 Source: World Bank Staff based on SESRE 2023. Note: The outcome positively responds to the question, ‘Do you intend to migrate abroad?’. The sample includes all refugees aged 15 or over who were born abroad. Standard errors clustered at the EA level. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Annexes 112 Results on Welfare and Equity Table D.11: Poverty headcount rate by subgroups Characteristics Subgroups In-camp Addis Ababa Hosts Refugees Hosts Refugees Location or domain Eritrean 16% 73% Somali 38% 76% South Sudanese 36% 89% Addis Ababa 18% 7% Sex of head Female 34% 87% 16% 10% Male 30% 74% 19% 3% Head education No education 38% 87% 35% 16% Primary incomplete 30% 81% 26% 13% Primary complete 29% 79% 14% 6%

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Input: 10 Figure 3: Level of education age 25 +; compared with regional average (%) (*) INSTAT refers to census 2009 Source: Listening to Displaced People Survey, 2014. With regards to ownership of consumer durables, IDPs, refugees and returnees were better endowed than the average citizen of the North (see Figure 4). As was the case for education, they are more comparable to the average citizen in Bamako than to the average citizen in the regions of Gao, Timbuktu and Kidal. Figure 4: Asset ownership compared with regional average Source: Listening to Displaced People Survey, 2014 and EMOP 2011 (INSTAT). The main occupation of IDPs, refugees and returnees before the crisis was commerce (Table 5). This held for over half of the IDPs, 37 % of refugees and 34 % of returnees. 18 % of the refugees 51 85 60 47 85 89 87 15 6 18 29 11 8 8 34 9 22 25 5 3 5 IDPs Refugees Returnees Bamako (INSTAT) Gao (INSTAT) Timbuktu (INSTAT) Kidal (INSTAT) Secondary or Higher Primary None 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 IDPs Refugees Returnees Bamako (Instat) Gao (Instat) Timbuktu (Instat) Kidal (Instat) Percentage Mobile Phone Car / Motorized Vehicle Motorbike / scooter Bicycle Refridgerator TV CD

Displaced People Survey
Listening to Displaced People Survey

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Input: Since the poverty headcount only reflects the proportion of poor people, it is usually complemented by a measure of the depth of deprivation, the poverty gap, which estimates the average gap between poor individuals and the poverty line. All poverty measures constructed in such a way are based on an underlying welfare metric. In most cases, the metric is defined at the household level and needs to be transformed into an individual measure. The transformation either divides household welfare by household size, providing a per capita measure or, in a more sophisticated way, takes into account differences in household composition (usually age and gender), leading to a per-adult equivalent measure. To measure household welfare, different metrics have been proposed and can generally be classified either into monetary or non-monetary metrics. Monetary metrics equate levels of well-being to a monetary indicator of utility (Samuelson, 1974), usually income, consumption or expenditure. Non-monetary metrics define normatively dimensions of deprivations, e. g., access to education and clean water, and aggregate them either by using dimension-specific thresholds or an aggregated threshold. The most commonly used approach in this class is the Multidimensional Poverty Index by UNDP and Oxford University (MPI; OPHI, 2018). While it is not uncommon to find experts with a strong preference for one measure over the other, both classes of poverty measures are in most cases complementing each other. While the monetary metric has the advantage of its theory-grounded definition without normative choices, it is complex to measure Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: 20 between 1948 and 1965, with increases in the percentage of adults with religious education in the cohorts born after this date. There is also wide geographical dispersion in the prevalence of madrassa education in Pakistan. Although all districts report that less than 2. 5 percent of children in the relevant age group (children between the ages of 5 and 19) are going to madrassas, the Pashto speaking belt that borders Afghanistan stands out in terms of the popularity of madrassas as an educational choice. The notion that the madrassa movement coincided with resistance to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan is supported by the 1998 data from the population census. The increase in the stock of religiously educated individuals starts with the cohort that came of age in 1979 (the year of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan) and the largest increase is for the cohort co-terminus with the rise of the Taliban. Combined with the fact that the largest enrollment percentage in Pakistan is in the Pashtun belt bordering Afghanistan, this suggests events in neighboring Afghanistan influence madrassa enrollment. Is there something intrinsic about Pashtun sensibility or tribal culture that leads to higher madrassa enrollment? The differentiation of the Pashtun and non-Pashtun districts does not extend to Pashtun and non-Pashtun households in the LEAPS data.

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Input: Border crossings The registration of people crossing internationals borders is conducted in many countries, and in some cases these data are used to estimate migration flows. Identifying refugees among people crossing borders is a significant challenge, particularly if individuals decide not to apply for asylum or refugee status (UNSD 2014). Additional problems associated with the collection of data on border crossings include: (a) difficulties distinguishing migrants from other people crossing a border, such as tourists, commuters, traders and truck drivers; (b) lack of capacity of many border posts and officials to handle large migration flows; (c) less scrutiny and diligence of emigration flows compared with immigration flow; and (d) lack of tight controls at most borders and the high incidence of undocumented or irregular crossings (UNSD 2014). Administrative records and registers Many countries have administrative records or registers of immigrants that could generate statistics on asylum-seekers and refugees. In particular, data on residence permits issued to refugees or asylum- seekers could be used to generate statistics on both flows and stocks of refugees. 79 For example, Eurostat collects and disseminates data on residence permits granted to those with refugee status and subsidiary protection (UNSD 2014).

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Input: 3. 5 Forecasts of Program Impacts The forecasters were mainly researchers working on topics in migration and development eco- nomics, or those with expertise in humanitarian program implementation, and were asked to predict effects on the program ’ s primary outcomes. For round 1, a total of 61 individuals, comprising 37 researchers and 23 non-researchers, responded to surveys about the program ’ s effects on refugee well-being. For round 2, 63 respondents, including 53 researchers and 10 non-researchers, pro- vided predictions on the effects on neighbors ’ social cohesion responses. Gathering forecast data allows us to assess whether estimated impacts were in line with the prior beliefs of research and policy experts. Table 2 presents the mean predicted effects, as well as the interval from the 10th to 90th percentiles of predictions. Generally, forecasters anticipated modest improvements in refugee well-being, particularly regarding housing outcomes, while predicting no average impact on the social cohesion measures collected among neighbors. 4 Empirical Strategy 4. 1 First stage compliance with program assignment Table 3, Panel B presents the ﬁrst stage analysis and the HSP take-up rate of 33 %. While sta- tistically signiﬁcant, the compliance rate is lower than expected, especially given the substantial funding offered by the program. Usage context: supporting mention, background mention, primary mention.

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Input: Thirty-eight percent of the sample was already engaged in at least one income-generating activity (IGA) at baseline. This is consistent with the national figures from the 2007 DHS survey, which found labor force participation rates of 34 % for women aged 15-19 and 49 % for women ages 20-24. It is also consistent with the Liberian 2010 Labor Force Survey, which found labor force participation rates of 25 % for women aged 15-19 and 47 % for women aged 20-24. For the purposes of this study, to be consistent with program objectives and the Liberian context, our definition of income-generating activity encompasses the full range of activities through which people earn money, including paid employment, either formal or informal, and self-employment in small business or through petty trade. The most common types of IGAs reported at baseline were petty trade, including 15 The balance tests are run on the same sample as will be used in the impact analysis in Section 4, that is, the subset of individuals for whom we have a panel. Balance tests run on the full sample of baseline survey respondents, regardless of whether they also participated in the midline survey, confirm the same findings. A report summarizing the balance tests on the full sample, including comparisons to nationally representative data, is available upon request from the authors. 9 Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

2007 DHS survey
Liberian 2010 Labor Force Survey

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Input: Sources of information This work includes a descriptive analysis that allows us to identify how the prevalence of non- standard employment (NSE) has evolved in the last two decades in different regions of the planet, as well as the evolution of the profile of workers in those roles, in terms of their educational level, salary per hour, and type of tasks performed. This analysis was based mainly on periodic surveys of households that included information regarding the employment and educational situation of individuals. Although the denomination of this type of surveys varies from country to country, in all the cases analyzed there is usually a survey of annual or higher frequency that includes information required to identify the labor status of the individuals as well as to analyze the salary profile and education of the employed. However, it should be noted that the identification of the type of work relationship (standard or non- standard) is frequently limited in these data sources. Indeed, it is only possible to identify part-time employment and temporary employment (not in all cases) within the non-standard forms of employment mentioned in the previous section. Usage context: primary mention, background mention, supporting mention.

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A data source described by its characteristics or producer rather than a proper name, containing a data noun and at least one identifying descriptor

A general reference to data, information, or statistics that contains a data noun but lacks enough specificity to identify the exact source